Protein Families Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Protein Families - Coursework Example The analysis of a single gene sequence is done by establishing similarity with other known genes, determining phylogenetic trees and evolutionary relationships; identifying well-defined domains in the sequence, identifying physical properties, binding sites and modification sites comprising of the protein sequence features. For analysis of complete genomes and to determine which gene families are present in the protein and which are not present, several techniques such as location of genes on the chromosomes, correlation with function or evolution, expansion of duplication of gene families, identification of missing enzymes, and presence or absence of biochemical pathways are considered. Large scale events that have affected the evolution of organisms are also studied for genome analysis. When genes or genomes are analyzed with respect to functional data the techniques used are expression analysis, micro array data, mRNA concentration measurements, protein concentration measurements, proteomics, and covalent modifications. For analysis of gene and genomes from a functional perspective, comparative analyses of biochemical pathways are made along with deletion or mutant genotypes vs. phenotypes and identification of essential genes, or genes involved in specific processes in structure and functions of the organisms. Analysis of protein structure and functions are done with the help of computer simulations which are used as tools to investigate protein structure and dynamics under a wide variety of conditions.... When genes or genomes are analysed with respect to functional data the techniques used are expression analysis, micro array data, mRNA concentration measurements, protein concentration measurements, proteomics, and covalent modifications. For analysis of gene and genomes from a functional perspective, comparative analyses of biochemical pathways are made along with deletion or mutant genotypes vs. phenotypes and identification of essential genes, or genes involved in specific processes in structure and functions of the organisms (Lengauer, 2002). Analysis of protein structure and functions are done with the help of computer simulations which are used as tools to investigate protein structure and dynamics under a wide variety of conditions, ranging from ligand binding and enzyme-reaction mechanisms to denaturation (in which protein molecules become biologically inactive) and protein re-folding (Ponder and Case, 2003). In all these simulations, the energy of a protein is represented as a function of its atomic coordinates. These functions are known as force fields as forces on individual atoms are related to the gradient of this potential energy function (Ponder and Case, 2003). The protein force fields are represented using a simple equation that shows the potential energy function (Source, Ponder and Case, 2003) Source, Ponder and Case, 2003 The summations shown here are on bonds, torsions and angles and this equation represents the very basic potential energy function that can reproduce only the essential features of protein energy at an atomic level. According to Ponder and Case (2003), the combination of potential energy function and the other parameters constitute a force field.

Study Guide for Crossword Puzzle Essay Example for Free

Study Guide for Crossword Puzzle Essay Guide Acids and Bases: 1. Be able to identify both the Bronsted–Lowry acid and base from a given reaction. ~An acid is a proton donor ~A base is a proton acceptor H3PO4 + H20 H3O+ +H2PO4- H3PO4 is an acid so it is a proton donor. It gives its positive atom to the other element 2. Be able to calculate the pH of a solution given [H3O+] Example: What is the pH of a solution with a [H3O+] of 1 x 10-2 M? The pH level should equal the exponent number of 2. Redox Reactions: Be able to identify what is reduced and what is oxidized in a redox reaction. Ex: What is reduced in the following reaction? 2 Bi3+ + 3 Mg 2 Bi + 3 Mg2+. The reduced element in the following is Bi (Bismuth) because that element is broken down without its charge number. Boyle’s Law: Be able to apply Boyle’s Law to solve for either pressure or volume Ex: A sample of helium gas occupies 1245 mL at 705 mmHg. For a gas sample at constant temperature, determine the volume of helium at 745 mmHg. P1V1=P2V2 If the pressure goes down, the volume goes up. V2=P1V1/P2 P1=705 mmHg P2=745 mmHg V1= 1245 mL V2= (705)(1245)/745 877725/745=1179 mL=V2 Charles’ Law: Be able to apply Charles’ Law to solve for either volume or temperature (remember to convert to Kelvin) Example: A gas at a temperature of 95 degrees C occupies a volume of 159 mL. Assuming constant pressure, determine the volume at 15 degree C. V1=V2 T1=T2 95Â °C+273=368K= T1 159 mL=V1 15Â °C + 273=288 T2 V2= (368)(159)/288=204 mL Ideal Gas Law: 1. Be able to calculate molar mass given density Example: For a gas at standard temperature and pressure with a density of 2. 75 g/L. determine its molar mass. Standard temperature and pressure occupies a volume of about 22. 4 L. This is known as the standard molar volume of a gas. V=cn (where c is a constant) n is number of molecules 2. Be able to calculate volume or pressure, using PV=nRT P=pressure, V=Volume, n=number of moles of gas, T=Temperature (Kelvin) R=ideal gas constant (0. 0821) for 1 mole of gas at STP, p=1 atm,V=22. 414 L, T= 273. 15K R=PV/nT

Low-grade Rhabdoid Meningioma: Morphological Characteristics

Low-grade Rhabdoid Meningioma: Morphological Characteristics Arvids Jakovlevs, Andrejs Vanags, Janis Gardovskis, Ilze Strumfa SUMMARY Rhabdoid meningioma (RM) is a rare type of meningioma. It is classified as a grade III tumour (anaplastic meningioma) in the recent World Health Organization (WHO) classification of the tumours of the central nervous system (CNS). Here we describe a unique case of RM lacking any features of malignancy. Few cases of low-grade RMs are described in the literature in contrast with the grading of this entity in WHO classification. Key words: meningioma, rhabdoid, low-grade AIM OF THE DEMONSTRATION The aim of our article is to report a case of unusual RM lacking malignant features in regard to the issue about the prognostic significance of rhabdoid morphology in meningiomas. CASE REPORT A 37-year-old woman was admitted to the hospital due to progressive headaches over previous 1.5 years. The magnetic resonance imaging of head and brain revealed a well-demarcated intracranial lesion measuring 3.53.63.6 cm (Figure 1A). The mass was located adjacent to the frontal bone and was attached to the dura mater. The patient underwent a craniotomy and total tumour resection. Histological examination of the neoplasm revealed cells consistent with rhabdoid morphology. The tumour was almost entirely composed of polygonal, rather large cells that possessed eccentric nuclei, strongly eosinophilic cytoplasm with abundant pale globular inclusions and prominent cytoplasmic granularity (Figure 1B). The nuclei of neoplastic cells were slightly pleomorphic. Mitoses were absent in the whole specimen. In addition, the tumour had well-developed fibrous capsule that demarcated it from normal brain tissues. Psammoma bodies were found in some areas of the tumour. Immunohistochemical visualizati on (IHC) showed intense cytoplasmic expression of vimentin and epithelial membrane antigen (Figure 1C-D) as well as strong nuclear expression of progesterone receptors in the tumour cells. The neoplastic cells did not express smooth muscle actin, desmin, HMB-45, S-100 protein, kappa and lambda light chains. Ki-67 proliferation index was as low as 1.5 %. Thus, the morphological appearance and immunohistochemical features were consistent with RM and low-grade cellular characteristics. DISCUSSION Tumours with rhabdoid morphology were first described in 1978 in relation to malignant renal tumours of children (1). Nowadays, many tumours with rhabdoid morphology are known in different localizations including CNS and meninges. Rhabdoid cells have no evidence of myogenic origin. The term „rhabdoid† is used to denote close histological resemblance of tumour cells to rhabdomyoblasts. Rhabdoid cells are characterized by typical light microscopic morphology: round cells with eccentric, vesicular nuclei, prominent nucleoli and eosinophilic cytoplasm with paranuclear globular inclusions (3). Meningiomas developing from the meninges are among the most common intracranial tumours. Regarding these tumours, surgery is the mainstay of treatment, and neurosurgeon also is involved in the planning of further observation and treatment in accordance to the tumour grade (5). Meningiomas show wide range of histopathological appearances. While the majority of meningiomas are benign tumours (WHO grade I meningiomas), some meningiomas have increased risk of local recurrences (WHO grade II meningiomas) and the minority are truly malignant and have a risk of metastatic dissemination; these are classified as WHO grade III meningiomas (2). RM is an uncommon type of meningioma which was described for the first time in 1998 (3). It was found that rhabdoid morphology in meningiomas was associated with a worse prognosis (3). Soon after this finding RM was separated as a distinct entity in WHO classification of CNS tumours published in 2000. RM has been classified as a grade III neoplasm by WHO (2). Consistent with the malignant behaviour, significant mitotic activity, anaplasia and other atypical features are usually found in RMs (2, 4). However, there are some isolated reports of RMs with no evidence of cellular atypia (6). In our case diagnosis of RM was established due to pure rhabdoid morphology along with meningothelial origin that was clearly demonstrated by IHC. Absence of atypia in the tumour cells and low Ki-67 proliferation index was consistent with low-grade meningioma in the present case. In conclusion, rhabdoid meningioma occasionally lacks histological features of malignancy that can lead to confusion if the rhabdoid morphology is always associated with malignant behaviour. Increased awareness of low-grade rhabdoid meningiomas is necessary to estimate the prognosis and to plan the treatment appropriately. REFERENCES Beckwith JB, Palmer NF. Histopathology and prognosis of Wilms tumors: results from the First National Wilms’ Tumor Study // Cancer, 1978; 41:1937 – 1948 Cooper WA, Shingde M, Lee VK, Allan RS, Wills EJ, Harper C. â€Å"Rhabdoid meningioma† lacking malignant features. Report of two cases // Clin Neuropathol, 2004; 23(1):16 – 20 Louis DN, Ohgaki H, Wiestler OD, Cavenee WK. Meningeal tumors // In: Bosman FT, Jaffe ES, Lakhani RS, Ohgaki H. WHO Classification of tumours of the central nervous system. 4th edition. Lyon: IARC; 2007; 164-180 Perry A, Scheithauer BW, Stafford SL, Abell-Aleff PC, Meyer FB. Rhabdoid meningioma: an aggressive variant // Am J Surg Pathol, 1998; 22:1482 – 1490 Walcott BP, Nahed BV, Brastianos PK, Loeffler JS. Radiation treatment for WHO grade II and III meningiomas // Front Oncol, 2013; 3:227, doi:10.3389/fonc.2013.00227 Zhou Y, Xie Q, Gong Y, Mao Y, Zhong P, Che X, Jiang C, Huang F, Zheng K, Li S, Gu Y, Bao W, Yang B, Wu J, Wang Y, Chen H, Xie L, Zheng M, Tang H. Clinicopathological analysis of rhabdoid meningiomas: Report of 12 cases and a systematic review of the literature // World Neurosurg, 2013; 79(5-6):724 – 732 3t-Alkyl-2r,6c-diarylpiperidin-4-ones: Synthesis 3t-Alkyl-2r,6c-diarylpiperidin-4-ones: Synthesis 3t-Alkyl-2r,6c-diarylpiperidin-4-ones Synthesis A very convenient and non-laborious one-pot synthesis method developed by Noller and Baliah [50] has been used successfully for the synthesis of 3t-alkyl-2r, 6c-diarylpiperidin-4-ones 32 by the condensation of methyl ketones, aromatic aldehydes and ammonium acetate in 1:2:1 molar ratio (Scheme 13). It’s a non-laborious one-pot synthesis of 3t-alkyl-2r, 6c-diarylpiperidin-4-ones 32. Various substituted piperidin-4-ones were also synthesized by adapting the above method [53-,57]. Often used typical procedure reported by Baliah and Jeyaraman was adapted to synthesis several substituted 3t-alkyl-2r,6c-difuranylpiperidin-4-ones 33 and 3t-benzyl-2r,6c-diarylpiperidin-4-ones 34 with convenient modification [58,59]. Seven r(2),c(4)-bis(isopropoxycarbonyl)-t(3)-aryl-c(5)-hydroxy-t(5)-methylcyclohexano-nes (aryl = C6H5, p-ClC6H4, p-FC6H4, p-OMeC6H4, p-Me2NC6H4, m-O2NC6H4 and m-C6H5OC6H4) have been synthesized by condensing isopropyl acetoacetate with aromatic aldehydes in the presence of methylamine [53]. Aridoss et al have synthesized an array of novel N-morpholinoacetyl-2,6-diarylpiperidin-4-ones as well as imidazo(4,5-b) pyridinylethoxypiperidones and Structure and stereochemistry of all the N-morpholinoacetyl-2,6-diarylpiperidin-4-ones have been analyzed using 1H and 13C NMR spectroscopic techniques [54,55]. 1H and 13C NMR spectra have been recorded for 2r,6c-diarylpiperidin-4-one (3_-hydroxy-2_naphthoyl)hydrazones and 3,3-dimethyl-2r,6c-bis(p-methoxyphenyl)piperidin-4-one [56-57]. Conversion to other derivatives Other derivatives from piperidin-4-ones have been obtained which includes oximes 35 [60-73], hydrazones 36 [57,74], semicarbazones 37 [75], thiosemicarbazones 38 [69], and phenylhydrazones 39 [76] by the reaction of the carbonyl group with suitable reagents. 2r,6c-diarylpiperidin-4-ones have been reduced to obtain 4t-Hydroxy-2r, 6c-diphenylpiperidines 40a and 4c-hydroxy-2r,6c-diphenylpiperidines 40b. N-substituted 2r,6c-diarylpiperidin-4-ones 41-51 was obtained by the reaction of the NH function with suitable reagents have been reported (Scheme 13) [77-84]. Physico-chemical studies Several physico-chemical studies have been performed for 3t-Alkyl-2r,6c-diarylpiperidin-4-ones and their derivatives [64-91]. Several studies have documented the conformations of various substituted 2,6-diarylpiperidin-4-ones [78,86]. Pandiarajan et al. [88] have elaborately discussed the conformations of 32 and suggested chair conformation to these compounds with equatorial disposition of the aryl and alkyl substituents based on their NMR spectral data. Substitution of alkyl group at C-3 position of the piperidine ring causes the ring to flatten slightly about C(2)-C(3) bond probably to decrease gauche interaction between aryl and alkyl groups at C(2) and C(3). Stereochemistry of N-acetyl and N-benzoyl-2r,6c-diphenylpiperidin-4-one oximes 5256 has been already reported [89]. Synthesis and conformation of 3t-chloro-2r,6c-diarylpiperidin-4-ones 57 also been reported [90,91]. Manimekalai et al. [92] demonstrated the conformation of benzyl group in 4-benzyl-4-hydroxypiperidines 58. Pharmacological studies Many piperidine derivatives possess pharmacological activities including antimicrobial, antioxidant and anticancer activities and to form an essential part of the molecular structure of important drugs [9, 93-97]. Piperidin-4-ones have been used for development of compounds with selective biological activities include antiviral [98], antitumor [99], analgesic [100], local anesthetic [101,102], bactericidal [103], fungicidal [103], herbicidal [103], insecticidal [104], antihistaminic [104], anti-inflammatory [104], anticancer [105], CNS stimulant [105], antitubercular and depressant [106] activities. Earlier reports have clearly established that the biological activities[R1] of piperidin-4-ones were improved by incorporation of the substituents at C-2, C-3 and C-6 [106,107]. Ferguson documented that N-nitrosopiperidines are carcinogenic in nature and blocking of one of the à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¡ position by an alkyl group significantly reduces the carcinogenic activity [108]. Lijinsky and Taylo r have also supports that blocking of à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¡ positions to the N-nitroso group by methyl groups reduces the carcinogenic activity [109]. 3t,5t-Dimethyl-2r,6c-diarylpiperidin-4-one hydrochlorides 59-61 have shown anti-histaminic activity [110]. Furthermore, 3t,5t-dimethyl-2r,6c-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)piperidin-4-one 62 and 3t-methyl-5-substitutedphenyl-2r,6c-diarylpiperidin-4-ones 63 showed antimicrobial, insecticidal and antihistaminic activities [111]. 2,3,6-Triarylpiperidin-4-ones 64 and their oximes exhibits marked bactericidal, fungicidal and herbicidal activities [104]. N-Substituted piperidin-4-one 65 and its derivatives 66 and 67 exhibited potential Juvenile hormone activity on Bombyx mori [112]. N-methyl-3E,5E-bis(arylidine)piperidin- 4-ones 68, possessing a variety of aryl and heteroaryl groups, showed antiviral and antitumor activities [98]. 3E,5E-Bis(benzylidene)piperidin-4-one 69, 1-acryloyl derivatives of 69, and 70 the adduct of 2-mercaptoethanesulfonic acid 71 as well as 3E,5E-Bis(thienylidene)-piperidin-4-ones 72 have shown antitumor activity towards human carcinoma cell lines Caov3, Scov3 and A549 [113]. Furthermore, modification of position 3 of the piperidin-4-one nucleus as well as a substitution of certain functional groups in the para position of phenyl ring attached to C-2 and C-6 carbons of the piperidine moiety would result in compounds of potent biological activities. Hydrazones Hydrazones are a class of organic compounds with azomethine -NHN=CH- proton that constitutes an important class of compounds for new drug development [10,97,98]. Hydrazone are formed usually by the action of hydrazine on ketones or aldehydes. Hydrazide-hydrazone derivatives receive the attention of various medicinal chemists as a result of their effectual biological potencies viz., antimicrobial, anti-tubercular, and also anticonvulsant actions [10,114-116]. Some hydrazones is known to act as herbicides, insecticides, nematocides, rodenticides and plant growth regulators. Several studies have documented the spasmolytic activity, hypotensive action and activity against leukaemia, sarcomas and other malignant neoplasms [114-116]. Many of the physiologically active hydrazones have applications in diseases like tuberculosis, leprosy and mental disorder are characterized by the presence of the triatomic group (>C=N–N73 [117]. Hydrazones are also useful in detection, determination and isolation of compounds containing the carbonyl group and many other metals [10]. Syringaldehyde hydrazones 74 and 6-nitro-3,4-methylene-dioxophenyl-N-acylhydrazone 75 exhibits antioxidant properties [118,119]. Hydrazone and its substituted derivatives showed good antibacterial, antifungal, anticonvulsant, antitubercular, anticancer and antitumor activities. 1-[4=[(2-[(4-Substitutedphenyl)methylene]hydrazine] carbonyl)phenyl]-3-substituted thioureas 76 exhibited good clinically active tuberculostat [120]. Some coupling products from 4-aminobenzoic acid hydrazones 77 and (7-Hydroxy-2-oxo-2H-chromen-4-yl)acetic hydrazide 78 showed antimicrobial activity [121,122]. A series of 4-fluorobenzoic acid (substituted methylene/ ethylidine) hydrazide derivatives 79 showed the chemotherapeutic antituberculosis activities [123]. Hemalatha et al have documented the antibacterial and antifungal activities of N-nitroso-2,6-diarylpiperidin-4-one semicarbazones [124]. Some bicyclic semicarbazones and thiosemicarbazones 81 showed a wide variety of biological activities [124]. The significance of fusing heterocycles Heterocycles possess an enormously diverse group of compounds, are widely distributed in nature. Heterocycles can be easily manipulated and modified by organic synthetic methods to increase or decrease reactivity. They are used extensively as intermediates in various reactions as well as building blocks in organic synthesis. Novel libraries of biologically diverse heterocyclic compounds have been synthesized by incorporation and substitution of a wide range of functional groups (ring activators or deactivators) and their positions around the ring of heterocycles. Several studies provide evidence that combination of two bio-active heterocyclic moieties together leads to the production of novel and biologically important compounds with the anticipation of several promising pharmacological agents [4,125]. Based on the above features discussed under 3t-Alkyl-2r,6c-diarylpiperidin-4-ones, 2r,4c-Diaryl-3-azabicyclo[3.3.1]nonan-9-ones and hydrazones, we have developed the system that fuse 3 -azabicyclonones/piperidin-4-one pharmacophore and hydrazide moieties together to produce the corresponding hydrazones with the anticipation of several promising antioxidant, anticancer and antimicrobial agents arising. The relevant technique used to elucidate the structure of the newly synthesized compounds Specialized spectroscopic instruments can be used to generate information that enables the determination of the structure of an unknown organic compound. This includes Infrared spectrometry (IR), nuclear magnetic spectrometry (NMR) and elemental analysis. Among all available spectrometric methods, NMR is the only technique which offers a complete analysis and interpretation of the entire spectrum [126,127]. A few of the strategies of NMR experiments that are used in determination of different compounds are described as follows. NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, one of the most versatile techniques for elucidation of structure of organic compounds, has shown a tremendous progress due to improved experimental technology and novel approaches. In NMR, the most useful information comes from the interactions between two nuclei, either through the bonds which connect them (J-coupling interaction) or directly through space (NOE interaction) [126-128]. Interpretation of NMR spectra is well understood from the following basic information gathered from NMR spectra. 1) Chemical shift, which identifies the type of proton based on their electronic environment, 2) Spin-Spin splitting patterns, which identifies neighbouring protons, 3) Peak Area, which is proportional to the number of protons giving a particular resonance line, 4) The observation of a triplet and a quartet spin state confirming usually the presence of an ethyl group (CH3CH2) and 5) The observation of ÃŽ ´ values between 7.2-8.0 indicates that the structure contains a benzene ring (benzyl proton) [126-130]. Generally, three approaches are used in NMR spectroscopy methods. These include one dimension (1D), two dimensions (2D) and three dimensions (3D). The first approach of 1D-NMR (1H DEPT, 13C, 15N, 19F, 31P, etc.) generates good information about the structure of simple organic compounds. However, it is overcrowded in case e of larger molecules. The second approach of 2D-NMR (COSY, DQFCOSY, MQFCOSY, HETCOR, HSQC, HMQC, HMBC, TOCSY, NOESY, EXSY, etc.) is used for the further larger molecules. A 2D-NMR spectrum also becomes complex and overlapping in case of further very large molecules like proteins. Therefore, multi-Dimensional-NMR (Homonuclear and Heteronuclear) are generally used to achieve high resolution and reduced overlapping in spectra of very large molecules [126,128,129]. This section further describes the general interpretation of structure of different organic compounds by different NMR techniques. 1D NMR SPECTROSCOPY 1H-NMR: Spin transitions of only hydrogen nuclei are observed in in 1H-NMR spectroscopy. Table 1 represents different ÃŽ ´ values, couplings, coupling constants and chemical shifts of 1H nuclei processing in different chemical environments. Commonly, ÃŽ ´ value scale of 1H-NMR ranges from 0-10 ppm with respect to Tetra methyl Silane (TMS) as internal standard. 1H-NMR spectral interpretation can be best understood from table 4 [126,131]. 1H Chemical shifts Because of variations in the electron distribution, the variation of nuclear magnetic resonance frequencies of the same kind of nucleus is referred to as chemical shift (symbolized by ÃŽ ´). Quantitative chemical shift are measured in frequency (Hertz) relative to a standard, Tetra methyl silane (TMS). Characterization of the structure of a molecule is depending upon the position and number of chemical shifts [111,112,115]. The chemical shift range of 1H nuclei can also be understood from a chart given in figure 1 [126].The chemical shift values for methyl protons attached to groups of varied electronegativity are given below [127]: CH3I-2.16 CH3Br-2.18 CH3Cl-3.05 and CH3F-4.26 ppm, The electron density around the proton affects its chemical shift. Because of the e- density around the H nuclei, the CH3 protons come to resonance at higher ÏÆ' values as the electronegativity of a functional group is increased. Electronic charge surrounded to H nuclei shields the nucleus to some extent from the influence of the applied field. The magnetic flux overcomes this shielding effect in order to bring a proton to resonance. Thus, the higher the electron density around the proton, the greater the induced diamagnetic effect and the greater the external field required to overcome the shielding effect. Electro-ve groups like fluorine in CH3F withdraws e- density from the CH3 group (-inductive effect). This leads to de-shielding by lower value of an applied magnetic field in order bring the methyl proton to resonance. Fluorine is more electro-ve than Cl, thus the proton in CH3F appears at a higher ÃŽ ´ values than those in CH3Cl. The chemical shift positions for protons attache d to C=C in alkenes is higher compared to that of accounted by electronegative effect alone. Alkene and aromatic protons appear at high ÏÆ' values while alkyne C≠¡C protons appear at a relatively low ÃŽ ´ value [126,127,132]. The magnetic field created by pi electrons or rings is referred to as Magnetic anisotropy, which describes an environment where different magnetic fields are found at different points in space. Since Pi electrons are held less strongly than sigma electrons, pi electrons are more able to move in response to the magnetic field. The anisotropic effects of the à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ³ electrons of C-C bond is low compared to those of the circulating à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ °-electrons. The equatorial protons in cyclohexane resonate at 0.5 ppm higher than the axial protons. This is due to the anisotropic effect of the à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ³-electron in the CÃŽ ²-Cà ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ § bonds [127,133] (Figure. 2). [R1]Specify which biological activity

Parental Risk Factors And Child Maltreatment Social Work Essay

Parental Risk Factors And Child Maltreatment Social Work Essay It is staggering to know that thousands of children are maltreated in ways that are detrimental to their developmental and psychological growth. Widespread concern about the issue was initially triggered in the 1960s to raise awareness of the plight of the battered child. Research has recognised numerous risk and protective factors commonly associated with child abuse. This essay will deal with the parental risk factors and will take into account the measures that afford protection against them. Some forms of child maltreatment are related to parental competency due to age, temperament or a personal history with child abuse. However, a good deal of abuse and neglect is linked to sources of stress where marital conflicts, domestic violence, and the lack of a stable social network play significant causal roles. Having said that, no single factor can be definitive in determining risk and so they require simultaneous consideration. Despite the causes, family protective factors can reduce maltreatment rates by promoting positive parent-child relationships, encouraging extended family support and by building parental resilience. When addressing the question of intervention, knowledge of the risk and protective factors implicated in child mistreatment can minimise risk. By recognising the complex interaction of factors that affect susceptibility to maltreatment, professionals can implement programmes specifically designed to protect children at risk. Therefore understanding the causes of maltreatment is crucial to preventing the problem. Child maltreatment is a complex and pervasive problem that cuts across all sectors of society, where even defining the term ensues in an inherent complication. During the 1960s, the growing prevalence of abused children lead to the introduction of the term battered child syndrome. This term, seen as a narrowly defined, was broadened so as not to simply infer to physical abuse. In 1997, the World Health Organisation drafted a definition of child maltreatment to encompass both emotional and physical injury but also negligent treatment. Risk factors are characteristics where certain behaviours or conditions will likely play a contributory role in child mistreatment. Although some are not direct causes, circumstances in which these factors exist make a child highly vulnerable to experiencing maltreatment. However, there are also factors that offer a protective effect which mediate against risk and therefore can increase the well-being of children and families. When determining risk in familial child maltreatment, it is necessary to examine the role of the parent as he is often the direct perpetrator. Temperament is significant when trying to understand why parents abuse their children. Influence of an individuals psychological capacity on parental functioning can be found in investigations of mentally disturbed adults. Baldwin, Cole and Baldwin (1982) have revealed that families with a parent suffering from a psychotic disorder were less interactive and exhibited less warmth than families without. Mental illness can distort a parents judgement to a point where he is no longer competent to make decisions about a childs needs. Strong evidence implicating psychological factors in the etiology of child maltreatment derives from reports of intergeneration cycles of abuse (Spinetta and Rigler, 1972; Sherrod, et al., 1986). Parents who were victims of child mistreatment themselves gives rise to the common perception that being a victim is a determinant for turning into an abuser, yet there is a lack of substantial evidence. Undoubtedly, a history of abuse is a considerable risk factor alone but child maltreatment is determined by a complex interaction of rick and protective factors; factors which differentiate between repeaters and non-repeaters. Notwithstanding, parents who were mistreated as children are less likely to become victimisers if they resolve internal conflicts related to that history of abuse. To further reduce risks, it is also important if parents have a supportive spouse and good social supports (Hunter and Kisltrom, 1979). However, adults who were rejected as children become emotionally insulated from interpersonal relations and are unable to give affection or form a close bond with their children (Kempe and Kempe, 1978). This returns attention to the psychiatric make up of the individual abuser and shows how interrelated causal factors are. Competent parenting can also be associated with psychological maturity; another determinant of maltreatment. Therefore, age serves as a indication of maturity and parental aptitude as young mothers may posses less desirable child-rearing attitudes than older mothers. Having said that, age also accounts for poor or inaccurate parenting skills as teen-parents will lack the fundamental understanding of a childs needs. Having unrealistic expectations about a childs progress may culminate in inappropriate punishments where conclusive studies presented by Straus (1992), and Flanagan et al., (1995), report that teenage mothers tend to exhibit higher rates of child abuse. Protective factors aimed at minimising these risks should support parents with their child-rearing skills and teach sensitive parenting techniques. By providing parent education classes for new and especially for teen parents can inform them about normal child development and what to expect from their children at specific ages. Yet, this protective factor is not well-suited for all as some parents may be reluctant to attend parent-group meetings. Social conditions create stresses that undermine family functioning where specific situations may exacerbate certain emotions of the family members affected. Hostility and frustration can resultantly aggravate the level of familial maltreatment. Marital relationships serve as a principle support system for parents and so conflicts can elicit child maltreatment. Family dissolution can burden an individual and research indicates that children living with single-parents may be at a higher risk of experiencing abuse and neglect than children with two biological parents (Finkelhor, et al., 1997). The sole burden of family responsibilities linked together with fewer supports can contribute to the risk of single-parents mistreating their child. Children in violent homes who witness intimate partner violence are subsequently at risk for being maltreated themselves. Appel and Holden (1998) have found that spousal abuse and child maltreatment co-exist in 30-60% of families. Even if children are not maltreated, they still experience harmful emotional consequences as witnessing violence teaches likewise behaviour or warrants it as appropriate and the child may resort to using violent action later in life. This draws attention back to the victim to offender hypothesis. In addition to a family system, interpersonal relations, between relatives and friends are essential when considering risks. Parents who are isolated with few social connections are at higher risk for maltreating their children. Hetherington, Cox and Cox (1977) have found that the support received from significant others exert a beneficial impact on parent-child relations. This data shows how a stable social network is positively linked with parents sense of competence in the care-giving role and evidently can lessen maltreatment rates. But its not merely about having several social connections but the quality of them as-well. It is interesting however that in these cases of support, the mediating role of the parents psychological well-being is pivotal. Marital relations do not influence parenting directly but instead promote positive attitudes in an individual and thereby influence parenting capabilities (Gamble and Belsky, 1984). Similarly, social relations may serve to enhance the psychological functioning of the parent. Sources of stress and support thus strongly affect parental competence, as although unfavourable relations contribute to the etiology of abuse, the quality of the relationship is influenced by personality; correspondingly, they produce bi-directional affects. Parental substance abuse, is also predictive of child maltreatment when daily stresses of raising children prove challenging especially when accompanied with multiple life stressors such as an history of abuse or marital conflicts. Substance misuse interferes with mental functioning and subsequently make parents less available to children, as Forrester (2000) confirms that substance abuse is strongly related to neglect. It may also explain some of the attachment difficulties that can occur, since healthy development requires parental responsiveness to the needs of a child. Being intoxicated can again negatively influence parental discipline choices and lead to violent tendencies towards a child. Simultaneously, these risk factors can affect a parents capacity to cope effectively but by reaching out to a support system can help build resilience against stressful circumstances. The interactive play of risk and protective factors provoke familial child maltreatment but it can be prevented regardless. Early identification of causes and outlining the compensatory factors can lead to effective interventions to protect the child involved. Helfer and Kempe (1976) have argued that preventing child abuse entails predicting its occurrence. Therefore, it is clear that professionals need awareness of the several factors that create contexts for maltreatment so that intervention programmes employ a multi-sectoral approach. By acknowledging the factors, intervention strategies can be implemented to minimise the underlying risks; encourage reaching out to family and friends, but also to strengthen the protective factors; advanced prenatal care and home-visitor networks (Halperin, 1979; Parke Collmer, 1975). Moreover, when enforcing intervention strategies, the treatment of parents should be coordinated to that of children as the potentials for change in parent-child relationships and parental attitudes is maximised (Olds, 1983). However, risk factors have limitations in predicting specific instances of abuse as the determinants in one family may not necessarily result in child maltreatment in another. Furthermore, an individual may not have the emotional resources to cope adequately with the demands of parenting and so intervention must be able to address these implications. Additionally, extensive evaluations need to be conducted to ascertain the effectiveness of short and long-term intervention programmes.

J. D. Salinger :: Biography Biographies Essays

J. D. Salinger Biographer Ian Hamilton notes that J. D. Salinger has been notoriously "famous for not wanting to be famous" (4). Born in New York in 1919 and still living today, Salinger leads a rather reclusive lifestyle, choosing to avoid the general attentions of the press, and thus making his life a difficult subject for study. His work, however, has been cherished and studied for many years. He has published many works of fiction both in book form and in magazines such as the New Yorker and Esquire. One of his most intriguing novels is Franny and Zooey, which is actually composed of two short stories bearing those names. It is one of several of Salinger's works involving the Glass family, specifically Franny and her brother Zachary, known in the family as Zooey. "Franny" relates the manner in which she arrives by train to spend an afternoon with her boyfriend Lane, whom she has not seen for some time. Lane is by nature a repressive person, one who, waiting for a train, intentionally tries to "empty his face of all expression that might quite simply, perhaps even beautifully, reveal how he felt about the arriving person" (7). It beautifully and honestly illustrates the nature of their relationship, which is far less than perfect. In the wake of the suicide of her brother Seymour (which readers can learn more about in "A Perfect Day for Bananafish" included in Nine Stories'), Franny searches for spiritual meaning in her life. Her tool in this quest is a book entitled The Way of a Pilgrim, and in following the teachings of this book, she begins to consider the lack of meaning in some of her relationships, which, in this story, alienates Lane. The majority of the story focuses on their dinner conversation, and the tension which develops between the couple is well handled by Salinger; for example, when Franny begins acting strangely, Lane "looked at her, then exhaled an overly expressive stream of smoke down at his plate. 'This is going to be a real little doll of a weekend,' he said" (24). Eventually, out of mental exhaustion, Franny passes out in the restaurant, "Zooey" picks up where "Franny" leaves off; she has been sick as a result of her increasing self-neglect. The reader meets Zooey, who spends the greater part of the story discussing with Franny her condition. Franny reveals the main point of The Way of a Pilgrim, which is to repeat the Jesus Prayer incessantly until it becomes as natural and constant a bodily process as breathing.

Jack Londons To Build A Fire: Theme Essay -- essays research papers

Jack London's To Build a Fire: Theme The significance of the words "dying and death" in Jack London's 1910 novel, "To Build a Fire" continuously expresses the man's dwindling warmth and bad luck in his journey along the Yukon trail to meet "the boys" at camp. London associates dying with the man's diminishing ability to stay warm in the frigid Alaskan climate. The main characters predicament slowly worsens one level at a time finally resulting in death. The narrator informs the reader that "the man" lacks personal experience traveling in the Yukon terrain. The old-timer warned the man about the harsh realities of the Klondike. The confident main character thinks of the old-timer at Sulphur Creek as "womanish." Along the trail, "the man" falls into a hidden spring and attempts to build a fire to dry his socks and warm himself. With his wet feet quickly growing numb, he realizes he has only one chance to successfully build a fire or face the harsh realities of the Yukon at one-hundred nine degrees below freezing. Falling snow from a tree blots out the fire and the character realizes "he had just heard his own sentence of death." Jack London introduces death to the reader in this scene. The man realizes "a second fire must be built without fail." The man's mind begins to run wild with thoughts of insecurity and death when the second fire fails. He recollects the story of a man who kills a steer to...

Interracial Marriage in Shakespeare’s Othello Essay

Racial prejudice against the outsiders existed during the Elizabethan Age and Shakespeare attempted to create a parallel world in his tragedy Othello, The Moor of Venice where he captures a wide array of reactions towards a Black Muslim by the white majority Christians in Venice. The racial discrimination has been latent in their minds for a long period and the interracial marriage of Othello and Desdemona acts as a catalyst resulting in a volcanic eruption like calamity in the society through a prototype villain Iago. The institution of marriage is often looked at as a means of enhancing the bond within a community and when an outsider attempts to become a part of a closed community then he is perceived as an intruder. This essay explores the tumultuous reaction of the society through Iago towards the interracial marriage of Othello and Desdemona. Human beings, once accustomed to a particular pattern, will find it extremely difficult to alter the same. Othello, the Black Moor with physical and cultural difference in the state of Venice has risen to the position of the army general through his meticulous and painstaking hard work. Iago, the vicious villain has developed an aversion towards Othello because of his Moorish background and it is intensified when Cassio is promoted to the position of lieutenant, overlooking Iago. Iago also suspects an illicit relation between his wife Emilia and Othello. So he vows to bring the downfall of Othello and takes the interracial marriage as the ripe opportunity to avenge Othello. He instigates Brabantio, father of Desdemona to bring Othello under trial for luring his daughter. Brabantio openly condemns Othello’s marriage with his daughter and accuses that the marriage is â€Å"maimed and most imperfect† (1. 3, 99) and â€Å"Against all rules of nature† (1. 3, 101). Further he strongly suspects that Othello has used magic potions on Desdemona and exploited her innocence by pushing her to run from her home to â€Å"to the sooty bosom / Of such a thing as thou – to fear, not to delight† (1. 2, 70-71). Brabantio thus overtly expresses his racist views before the Duke because he is basically a Venetian who is obsessed with racial prejudice and it is so blatantly displayed because he learns that his daughter has fallen for the Moor from Roderigo, the half-wit consumed by lust for Desdemona and Iago, where the later has hidden his identity and has expressed their love affair in the most obscene language as possible. Iago states, â€Å"†¦you’ll / Have your daughter covered with a Barbary horse† (1. 1, 111-112) and â€Å"I am one, sir, that comes to tell you your daughter / And the Moor are now making the beast with two backs. 1. 1, 116-117). As Elizabeth Beaudin notes, â€Å"The language Iago and Roderigo use to incite the senator’s anger is clearly prejudiced; they refer to Othello as ‘an old black ram,’ a ‘Barbary horse,’ and a ‘lascivious Moor’ (13). The racist remarks of Iago and Roderigo against Othello reflect the prejudice that existed in the society when a Black Moor holds a better position in the society be it in military, society or the heart of a woman. Both Iago and Roderigo refer to Othello as an animal, thick-lipped, uneducated, and crude, and never call him by his name in private. Othello is enquired about the charges levied by Brabantio and the Moor responds that their love is mutual which has been nurtured through conversation. He states that â€Å"She loved me for the dangers I had pass’d, / And I loved her that she did pity them† (1. 3, 167-168). The Duke is one of the few characters in the play who trusts that the love affair is beyond the narrow lanes of racism and approves their marriage. When both the lovers are found to be in a state of complete bliss Iago remarks, â€Å"O, you are well tuned now! / But I’ll set down the pegs that make this music, / As honest as I am. (2. 1, 199-201). Iago swears to loosen the pegs in order to bring about a disharmony in their relationship. Mussari rightly states, â€Å"From the opening scene the interracial marriage between Othello and Desdemona colors all aspects of the play. Race also provides further motivation for the resentful Iago to destroy the general’s happiness. † (40-41). Iago strongly believes that Desdemona’s love for the Moor is nothing but an unnatural sexual desire and schemes in the most scrupulous manner to infuse jealousy in place of love in the mind of Othello. Earlier Othello believed that Desdemona loved him for his adventures and he not being a chamberer. But under the poisonous influence of Iago Othello believes that it is the very same quality that has made her leave him. â€Å"†¦ for I am black / And have not those soft parts of conversation / That chamberers have, or for I am declined† (3. 3, 263-265) Iago is extremely sly and a master puppeteer who brings almost everyone under his dominion. He convinces Roderigo that h can win Desdemona’s love only by procuring gifts for her and gains monetary benefits from him. Cassio also blindly believes him and thinks that Iago is striving hard to regain Cassio’s lost position. The seeds of jealousy are sown in the minds of Othello and it has deep-rooted in him. He has made a thorough analysis of Othello’s nature and produces the ocular proof for his wife’s infidelity. Iago is unable to stomach the fact that Othello is not only the supreme commander of the arms but has won the heart of a white Venetian woman. He is absolutely hostile to this interracial marriage and longs to dissolve the marriage at any cost. Roderigo, Cassio and his wife Emilia are made as pawns who unknowingly play a crucial role in disrupting the harmonious relationship between Othello and Desdemona. Iago goes to the extent of inventing an accusation that his wife is committing adultery with Othello. â€Å"†¦ Twixt my sheets / he’s done my office† (1. 3, 380-381). Othello and Desdemona unlike many other lovers establish a mature relationship in the beginning and are convinced that they share a mutual bond of love and affection. But it is not just the jealousy of Othello that plays a spoilsport. The racial incompatibility is internalized in every human being because humans are essentially social beings and hence are used to living in a homogeneous environment. The sudden intrusion may shock a majority section of the society like Brabantio, Iago and Roderigo. But a few may develop an initial fascination towards this heterogeneity like Desdemona. Desdemona herself is convinced that there is something unnatural about her love for Othello. She fails to understand Othello completely because of the cultural and racial differences that existed between them. She had once remarked that she fears looking at such blackness as in Othello which is reaffirmed by Othello when Iago states, â€Å"seem’d to shake and fear your looks† (3. 3, 207). Both Desdemona and Othello are initially drawn to each other because of their physical appearance but later this difference of Black and White creates a gap between them. Othello is appalled â€Å"not only because Desdemona corrupts herself ut because her ‘blackness’ confirms his† (Berry, 328). The interracial marriage, no doubt, intensifies the race-related social tensions and the society is completely turned into a chaotic environment. The reaction of the racially prejudiced society has been extremely intense because, the interracial relationship has matured to the level of married. If Iago had carried out such frenzied beastly act before Othello and Desdemona had married, it would have lead to the separation of the lovers. But the interracial marriage has mounted such an apprehension both in the society and the couple. Hence every other Venetian was easily exploited by Iago and Othello himself easily succumbed to the pressures of Iago. Being married, Othello is convinced that he could restore his honor only by killing his wife who is believed to have cuckolded him. To conclude, Shakespeare has illustrated that the dearth of a society is certain when a racial incompatibility exists in the society. The interracial marriage of Othello and Desdemona may have survived a little longer if Iago has not intervened because Iago has just acted as a catalyst and speedup the dissolution of the marriage. The love affair between Othello and Desdemona was purely emotional but the moment they enter into the institution of marriage, it definitely has to withstand the whirlwinds of the society. An interracial marriage is perceived as a threat to the integrity of the society and hence it is rarely welcomed. Within such a hostile environment, it is truly a challenge for the couple to uphold their marital relationship in which both Othello and Desdemona fail miserably as they easily yield to the pressures of the society in the guise of Iago.